A quick summary of Cultural Change (Book 2, Chapter 2) for revision right before the exam: every definition, the named reformers and processes, and the key facts. Read the full notes separately for detailed explanations and examples.
1 The Chapter’s Two Developments
1
Deliberate reform
19th-century reformers and 20th-century nationalists changing practices discriminating against women and “lower” castes.
2
Four processes
Sanskritisation, Modernisation, Secularisation, Westernisation. Sanskritisation pre-dates colonialism; the other three can be understood better as complex responses to the changes colonialism brought.
2 Reformers to Remember
| Reformer | What they did |
|---|---|
| Raja Ram Mohun Roy | Attacked sati using both humanitarian/natural-rights appeals and Hindu shastras |
| Ranade | Wrote the shastric case for widow remarriage |
| Sir Syed Ahmed Khan | Emphasised the validity of ijtihad (free enquiry) in Islam, and the “alleged similarities” between Koranic revelations and modern science |
| Kandukiri Viresalingam | Wrote “The Sources of Knowledge” (navya-nyaya logic); translated Julius Huxley |
| Jotiba Phule | Opened the first school for women in Pune; recalled the “pre-Aryan age” |
| Bal Gangadhar Tilak | Emphasised the glory of the Aryan period |
| Jahanara Shah Nawas | Proposed the anti-polygamy resolution at the All-India Muslim Ladies Conference |
3 Saberwal’s Three Aspects of Change
1Communication: press, telegraph, railways
2Organisation: Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Muslim Ladies Conference
3Ideas: liberalism, education, cultural pride
4 Key Years
1864Keshav Chandra Sen visits Madras
1868Vishnu Shastri’s Marathi translation of Vidyasagar published in Indu Prakash
1870Ravi Varma’s first paid commission (Krishna Menon family)
1914All-India Muslim Ladies Conference founded
1967Rudolph and Rudolph, “The Modernity of Tradition”
1997Rajni Kothari, “Caste and Modern Politics” (in Kaviraj, ed., Politics in India)
5 Key Definitions
All definitions in one place
Social structureA continuing arrangement of persons in relationships defined or controlled by institutions
CultureSocially established norms or patterns of behaviour
SanskritisationA “low” caste, tribe or group takes over the customs, ritual, beliefs, ideology and style of life of a high, “twice-born” (dwija) caste
De-SanskritisationWhere non-Sanskritic castes are dominant, their influence spreads over the region instead
WesternisationChanges in Indian society and culture from over 150 years of British rule, across technology, institutions, ideology and values
ModernisationOriginally, improvement in technology and production; later, the development path of Western Europe/North America, offered as one all societies should follow
SecularisationIn the West, usually a decline in the influence of religion; in India, also used for caste’s shift from a religious framework to political pressure groups
IjtihadFree enquiry; Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s interpretation of Islam emphasised its validity, along with the “alleged similarities” between Koranic revelations and the laws of nature found by modern science
6 Sanskritisation: Five Criticisms
1Only positional, not structural, change
2Accepts upper caste as superior
3Justifies inequality and exclusion
4Spreads seclusion of women, dowry in place of bride-price, caste discrimination
5Erodes Dalit culture: labour “shameful”, crafts and knowledge “useless”
7 Westernisation vs Modernisation
Westernisation
- Different kinds, e.g. (a) a westernised sub-culture of a minority who first met Western culture (many early-19th-century reformers); (b) the general spread of Western traits in technology, dress, food and habits (TV, fridge, sofa set, dining table)
- Involves imitation of external forms; does NOT necessarily bring modern values
- Srinivas: lower castes Sanskritise, upper castes Westernise; the book says this is hard to maintain (elite Thiyyas of Kerala westernised)
Modernisation
- Early usage: improvement in technology and production; later, the path of development of Western Europe and North America
- Rudolph and Rudolph’s modernity: choice over birth, achieved over ascribed identity
- India’s version began within the colonial context, unlike the West’s
Quick Revision: read this the night before the exam
- This chapter covers culture, not structure: deliberate reform movements, plus four processes of cultural change
- Sanskritisation pre-dates colonialism; Modernisation, Secularisation and Westernisation can be understood better as complex responses to the changes colonialism brought
- Reformers: Raja Ram Mohun Roy (sati), Ranade (widow remarriage), Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (ijtihad), Viresalingam (navya-nyaya logic), Phule (women’s education, pre-Aryan age) vs Tilak (Aryan glory)
- Sanskritisation: coined by Srinivas; a “low” group adopts a “twice-born” caste’s customs; five criticisms, especially that it is only positional, not structural, change
- Westernisation: Srinivas’s 150-years-of-British-rule definition; it does involve imitation of external forms, which need not bring modern values
- Modernisation: Rudolph and Rudolph’s definition centres on choice and achievement over birth and ascription
- Secularisation: usually means religion’s decline, but the book gives real counter-evidence; also used for caste’s shift into political pressure groups (Rajni Kothari)
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