The essence of this chapter for last-minute revision: the water budget, sector-wise use, the most polluted rivers, watershed programmes and the Ralegan Siddhi case study. The full notes, with the complete explanation, are available separately.
1 Four definitions to learn
Water is a cyclic resource: it circulates endlessly and is not used up, though freshwater fit for use is a very small share of all the water on earth.
Water quality refers to the purity of water, or water without unwanted foreign substances; pollutants such as micro-organisms, chemicals and industrial waste dissolve or lie suspended in water and can also seep down and pollute groundwater.
Watershed management (narrow sense) = efficient management and conservation of surface and groundwater resources. (Broad sense) = conservation, regeneration and judicious use of all natural resources (land, water, plants, animals) and human resources within a watershed.
Rainwater harvesting is a low-cost, eco-friendly method to capture and store rainwater for various uses and to recharge groundwater aquifers, by guiding rainwater to borewells, pits and wells.
2 India’s water budget, in one table
| Quantity | Value |
|---|---|
| Total precipitation received per year | ~4,000 cubic km |
| Available (surface water + replenishable groundwater) | 1,869 cubic km |
| Beneficially usable share of the above | 60% |
| Total utilisable water resource | 1,122 cubic km |
| Total replenishable groundwater | 432 cubic km |
| Surface water actually utilisable (of 1,869 cu km flow) | ~690 cubic km (32%) |
India has 2.45% of world surface area, 4% of world’s water resources, but 17%+ of world’s population: the classic “high population, low water share” fact triangle, asked constantly.
3 Sector-wise water utilisation
| Sector | Surface water | Groundwater |
|---|---|---|
| Agriculture | 89% | 92% |
| Industry | 2% | 5% |
| Domestic | 9% | lower than surface share |
- Groundwater use: very high in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu · low in Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Kerala · moderate in Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tripura, Maharashtra
- Punjab: 76.1% of net irrigated area via wells/tubewells · Haryana: 51.3% · both >85% of net sown area irrigated → groundwater table decline
- Over-extraction → fluoride up in Rajasthan, Maharashtra; arsenic up in parts of West Bengal, Bihar
- Multipurpose projects: Bhakra-Nangal, Hirakud, Damodar Valley, Nagarjuna Sagar, Indira Gandhi Canal Project
- Lagoon/backwater states (brackish water, used for fishing/paddy/coconut): Kerala, Odisha, West Bengal
4 Water pollution, in one table
| River | Most polluted stretch/city |
|---|---|
| Yamuna (most polluted river in the country) | Delhi to Etawah |
| Sabarmati | Ahmedabad |
| Gomti | Lucknow |
| Kali, Adyar, Cooum | entire stretches |
| Vaigai | Madurai |
| Musi | Hyderabad |
| Ganga | Kanpur and Varanasi |
- CPCB + State Pollution Control Boards monitor 507 stations; main pollution source = organic and bacterial contamination
- Pollution worst in summer (low river flow concentrates pollutants)
- Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974 · Environment Protection Act 1986 · Water Cess Act 1977, all only marginally effective; 1997: 251 polluting industries still along rivers/lakes
5 Watershed and water-harvesting programmes
| Programme | Key fact |
|---|---|
| Haryali | Central-Govt watershed project; executed by Gram Panchayats with people’s participation |
| Atal Bhujal Yojana (Atal Jal) | 7 states (Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, MP, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, UP) · 8,220 Gram Panchayats · 229 blocks/talukas · 80 districts · ~37% of India’s water-stressed blocks |
| Neeru-Meeru | Andhra Pradesh: percolation tanks, dug-out ponds (Johad), check dams |
| Arvary Pani Sansad | Alwar, Rajasthan: same water-harvesting structures, people’s participation |
| Tamil Nadu rule | Household rainwater harvesting made compulsory; no building without it |
Traditional rainwater harvesting (Rajasthan): Kund or Tanka, a covered underground tank near or in the house/village.
6 Ralegan Siddhi: case study timeline
| When | What happened |
|---|---|
| Before 1975 | Village (Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra) caught in poverty and illicit liquor trade |
| 1975 | Percolation tank built, but embankment leaked and could not hold water |
| After voluntary repair | Seven wells below the tank swelled with water for the first time in living memory |
| Same period | Youth group Tarun Mandal formed; it worked to ban dowry, caste discrimination and untouchability |
| Same period | Liquor units removed; open grazing banned (stall-feeding instead); water-intensive crops like sugarcane banned; pulses, oilseeds and low-water cash crops encouraged |
| Same period | Nyay Panchayats (informal courts) set up; no case referred to police since |
| Same period | Rs. 22 lakh school built using only the village’s own resources, no donations taken |
| Present | Water adequate, agriculture flourishing (though fertiliser/pesticide use very high) |
The activist, on why voluntary labour mattered: “It socialised the costs of the projects.”
7 National policies
- National Water Policy, 2012: unified national perspective; water treated as an economic good after pre-emptive needs (drinking water, sanitation, food security, poor farmers’ livelihood, eco-system needs) are met; benchmarks via water footprints and water auditing; community-participation management
- PMKSY (2015-16): “Har Khet Ko Pani” (expand assured irrigation), “Per Drop More Crop” (efficient on-farm use), sustainable conservation practices
- Jal Kranti Abhiyan (2015-16): one “Jal Gram” in each of 672 districts · model command area of ~1,000 hectares (UP, Haryana, Karnataka, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Odisha, Meghalaya) · pollution abatement (arsenic-free wells) · mass awareness campaigns
- Freshwater = 3% of total water · India = 2.45% world area, 4% world water, 17%+ world population
- Water budget: 4,000 → 1,869 (60% usable) → 1,122 cubic km utilisable · groundwater 432 cubic km
- Rivers >1.6 km: 10,360 · surface water utilisable: 690 cubic km (32%)
- Sector use: agriculture 89%/92%, industry 2%/5%, domestic 9% (surface/ground)
- Punjab 76.1%, Haryana 51.3% (wells/tubewells); >85% net sown area irrigated in Punjab-Haryana-w.UP
- CPCB monitors 507 stations · Yamuna most polluted (Delhi-Etawah) · 1997: 251 polluting industries
- Water Act 1974, Environment Protection Act 1986, Water Cess Act 1977
- Atal Bhujal Yojana: 7 states, 8,220 panchayats, 229 blocks, 80 districts, 37%
- Ralegan Siddhi: 1975, Tarun Mandal, Nyay Panchayats, Rs. 22 lakh school
- National Water Policy 2012 · PMKSY and Jal Kranti Abhiyan both 2015-16 (672 districts, 1,000 ha)