1 What Is South Asia?
South Asia is generally understood to comprise seven countries: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and the Maldives. The Himalayas to the north and the Indian Ocean to the south make this region one geographical unit. These countries share a common history, but their political paths diverged after independence.
| Country | Political Experience |
|---|---|
| India, Sri Lanka | A democratic system has continued since independence |
| Pakistan, Bangladesh | Repeated shifts between democratic and military rule |
| Nepal | A long struggle from monarchy towards democracy |
| Bhutan | A monarchy that has gradually moved towards democracy |
| Maldives | From a sultanate to a republic, and then multi-party democracy |
2 The Path to Democracy
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka have each had a different experience of democracy. Sections 3 to 6 take them one by one: the military and democracy in Pakistan (section 3), Bangladesh after independence in 1971 (section 4), monarchy and democracy in Nepal (section 5) and ethnic conflict and democracy in Sri Lanka (section 6).
For any question on “experiences of democracy in South Asia”, be sure to write that, despite the mixed record, a survey of the people in the five big countries of the region showed widespread support for democracy: ordinary citizens, rich as well as poor and of different religions, prefer democracy over any other form of government.
3 The Military and Democracy in Pakistan
- The social dominance of the military, clergy and landowning aristocracy has led to the frequent overthrow of elected governments.
- Pakistan’s conflict with India has made the pro-military groups more powerful; they claim that parties and democracy are flawed and the army’s stay in power is justified.
- The lack of genuine international support for democratic rule: the US and other Western countries encouraged military rule in the past, fearing ‘global Islamic terrorism’ and that Pakistan’s nuclear arsenal might fall into terrorist hands; they saw the military regime as the protector of Western interests in West Asia and South Asia.
Even so, Pakistan has a strong pro-democracy sentiment, a courageous and relatively free press and a strong human rights movement.
4 Democracy in Bangladesh
Bangladesh was part of Pakistan from 1947 to 1971. Its people resented West Pakistan’s domination and the imposition of Urdu. Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman led the struggle and demanded autonomy for the eastern region. In the 1970 elections his Awami League won all the seats in East Pakistan and a majority in the proposed constituent assembly, but the West Pakistani leadership refused to convene it and Mujib was arrested. Under General Yahya Khan the army tried to suppress the Bengali movement; thousands were killed and a huge refugee problem arose for India. India supported the demand for independence, financially and militarily, and the December 1971 war ended in the surrender of Pakistani forces and the formation of Bangladesh.
5 Monarchy and Democracy in Nepal
Nepal was a Hindu kingdom and then for many years a constitutional monarchy; the king, with the help of the army, retained full control and restricted democracy. The king accepted a new democratic constitution in 1990 after a strong pro-democracy movement, but democratic governments had a short and troubled career. During the nineties the Maoists, who believed in armed insurrection against the monarch and the ruling elite, spread their influence, leading to a triangular conflict among the monarchist forces, the democrats and the Maoists. In 2002 the king abolished the parliament and dismissed the government, ending even the limited democracy. In April 2006 massive pro-democracy protests, led by the Seven Party Alliance (SPA), the Maoists and social activists, forced the king to restore the House of Representatives. The Maoists agreed to suspend armed struggle. In 2008 Nepal became a democratic republic and in 2015 adopted a new constitution.
6 Ethnic Conflict and Democracy in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka has retained democracy since independence in 1948, but faced a serious challenge from ethnic conflict. Politics after independence was dominated by forces representing the majority Sinhala community, who were hostile to the large number of Tamils who had migrated from India; Sinhala nationalists felt no ‘concessions’ should be given to the Tamils. The neglect of Tamil concerns led to militant Tamil nationalism: from 1983 the LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam) fought an armed struggle for a separate ‘Tamil Eelam’ and at one point controlled the north-eastern part of the island.
Despite the conflict, Sri Lanka recorded considerable economic growth and high human development: one of the first developing countries to control population growth, the first in the region to liberalise its economy, and the highest per capita GDP for many years right through the civil war.
7 India and Pakistan
The dispute over Kashmir began right after Partition, and remains the biggest knot in relations between the two countries to this day. The two countries fought wars in 1947–48, 1965 and 1971, and the Kargil conflict took place in 1999.
The Indus Waters Treaty (1960) was signed by India and Pakistan with the help of the World Bank, and it has survived to this day in spite of various military conflicts between the two countries. It is a strong answer when the exam asks for an example of India–Pakistan cooperation.
India’s conflict with Pakistan is also over strategic issues like the control of the Siachen glacier and the acquisition of arms. In 1998 India conducted a nuclear explosion in Pokhran and Pakistan responded within days with tests in the Chagai Hills; since then the possibility of a direct full-scale war seems to have declined, but suspicion remains. India blames Pakistan for helping Kashmiri militants and, during 1985-1995, pro-Khalistani militants, and alleges that its spy agency ISI works against India in the northeast through Bangladesh and Nepal; Pakistan blames India for fomenting trouble in Sindh and Balochistan. The two also disagree over the demarcation line in Sir Creek in the Rann of Kutch.
Points of Conflict
- The Kashmir dispute
- Control over the Siachen Glacier
- Cross-border terrorism
- Sharing of river waters
Attempts at Cooperation
- The 1960 Indus Waters Treaty: has held despite tensions
- Confidence-building steps such as bus services and trade
- Summit talks and people-to-people contact
8 India and Its Other Neighbours
| Country | Cooperation | Points of Difference |
|---|---|---|
| Bangladesh | India’s support in 1971; economic relations much improved; part of India’s Look East (Act East since 2014) policy; cooperation on disaster management and the environment; enclaves exchanged in 2015; the 1996 Farakka Treaty on sharing the Ganga waters | Sharing of the Ganga and Brahmaputra waters; India is unhappy at Bangladesh’s denial of illegal immigration, support for anti-Indian fundamentalist groups, refusal of transit for Indian troops and refusal to export natural gas; Bangladesh accuses India of acting like a regional bully over river waters, encouraging rebellion in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and unfair trade; a long boundary dispute |
| Nepal | An open border, deep social–cultural ties, trade | Trade disputes; India’s displeasure at Nepal’s warm relations with China and inaction against anti-Indian elements; Indian agencies see the Maoist movement as a security threat; many in Nepal feel India interferes, has designs on its river waters and hydroelectricity, and limits the landlocked country’s access to the sea |
| Sri Lanka | A free trade agreement (1998); India’s help in post-tsunami reconstruction; after the 1987 intervention India prefers disengagement from Sri Lanka’s internal troubles | Mostly over the ethnic conflict: Indian leaders and citizens cannot remain neutral when Tamils are unhappy; the 1987 Accord and IPKF were resented by many Sri Lankans |
| Bhutan | A very special relationship; the Bhutanese monarch’s efforts to weed out guerrillas and militants from northeastern India operating in Bhutan; big Indian hydroelectric projects; India is its biggest source of development aid | No major conflict |
| Maldives | Warm and cordial ties; in November 1988 the Indian air force and navy helped stop an attack by Tamil mercenaries from Sri Lanka; help with economic development, tourism and fisheries | No major conflict |
Given its size and power, the smaller neighbours are suspicious of India and fear it wants to be regionally dominant, while India feels exploited and fears that instability lets outside powers gain influence. But not all conflicts involve India: Nepal and Bhutan disagreed over the migration of ethnic Nepalese into Bhutan; Bangladesh and Myanmar over the Rohingyas; Bangladesh and Nepal over the Himalayan river waters. Most conflicts involve India partly because India is located centrally and is the only country that borders the others.
9 SAARC and Regional Cooperation
SAARC: the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, whose charter was signed in December 1985. It is a platform for economic, social and cultural cooperation among the countries of the region.
SAFTA: the South Asian Free Trade Area, signed at the 12th SAARC summit in January 2004. Its aim is to create a free-trade area within the region by lowering tariffs on trade.
The SAFTA agreement came into effect on 1 January 2006. Some neighbours fear SAFTA is a way for India to ‘invade’ their markets and influence their societies and politics; India thinks that a region that trades more freely will cooperate better on political issues, though some in India feel SAFTA is not worth the trouble since India already has bilateral agreements with Bhutan, Nepal and Sri Lanka. India and Pakistan have also tried to manage tensions through confidence building measures, summits, bus routes, more trade and easier visas, though the situation has changed in recent times.
SAARC’s success has been limited, because political differences among member states, especially between India and Pakistan, have repeatedly come in the way of cooperation. Even so, it remains an important platform for dialogue.
10 The Role of Outside Powers: China and the US
No region exists in a vacuum. China and the United States remain key players in South Asian politics.
China
- Sino-Indian relations have improved significantly in the last ten years
- Economic ties have multiplied rapidly since 1991, driven by development and globalisation
- But China’s strategic partnership with Pakistan remains a major irritant
The United States
- Earlier encouraged military rule in Pakistan for its own reasons (see section 3)
- The book notes that American involvement has rapidly increased after the Cold War: good relations with both India and Pakistan, increasingly a moderator in India-Pakistan relations, a stake through economic reforms, large South Asian diasporas and the region’s huge markets
Whether South Asia remains a conflict-prone zone or becomes a regional bloc will depend more on the people and governments of the region than on any outside power.
- The seven countries of South Asia: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Maldives
- Democracy continued in India and Sri Lanka; Pakistan and Bangladesh saw spells of military rule
- Bangladesh became independent in 1971; Nepal: pro-democracy movement in 2006, democratic republic in 2008, new constitution in 2015
- Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka; the LTTE was defeated in 2009
- India–Pakistan wars in 1947–48, 1965, 1971, and Kargil in 1999
- The Indus Waters Treaty, 1960 (World Bank help): has survived despite wars, a key example of India–Pakistan cooperation
- The SAARC charter, December 1985; SAFTA, January 2004
- A survey of the five big countries of the region found widespread support for democracy among ordinary people
- 1 MarkWhich seven countries are generally counted as South Asia?
- 1 MarkWhen was the SAARC charter signed?
- 1 MarkIn which year was SAFTA signed?
- 1 MarkIn which year did Bangladesh become independent?
- 1 MarkIn which year was the Indus Waters Treaty signed?
- 1 MarkIn which year did Nepal abolish its monarchy and become a democratic republic?
- 1 MarkWhen was the LTTE defeated in Sri Lanka?
- 1 MarkIn which year did the Kargil conflict take place?
- 2 MarksWhy has the path to democracy been difficult in Pakistan? Give any two reasons.
- 2 MarksWhy is the Indus Waters Treaty considered a good example of cooperation?
- 2 MarksBriefly describe the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka.
- 4 MarksState four issues of conflict between India and Pakistan.
- 4 MarksWrite the points of cooperation and difference in India’s relations with Bangladesh and Nepal.
- 4 MarksCompare the democratic experiences of the countries of South Asia.
- 4 MarksWhy has SAARC’s success been limited?
- 6 MarksDescribe in detail the experience of democracy in South Asia.
- 6 MarksExplain both the conflict and cooperation aspects of India–Pakistan relations.
- 6 MarksThrow light on the aims and achievements of SAARC and SAFTA.
- 1 MarkThe SAARC charter was signed in:
(a) 1971(b) 1985(c) 1999(d) 2004 - 1 MarkSAFTA was signed at which SAARC summit?
(a) 10th(b) 11th(c) 12th(d) 14th - 1 MarkIn which year was the Indus Waters Treaty signed?
(a) 1947(b) 1960(c) 1971(d) 1985 - 1 MarkBangladesh became independent in:
(a) 1965(b) 1971(c) 1975(d) 1987 - 1 MarkThe LTTE was defeated in Sri Lanka in:
(a) 1987(b) 1999(c) 2006(d) 2009
Options: (a) Both true, R correctly explains A · (b) Both true, R does not explain A · (c) A true, R false · (d) A false, R true.
- 1 Mark
Assertion (A): The Indus Waters Treaty is an example of India–Pakistan cooperation.
Reason (R): The treaty has held despite wars and tension. - 1 Mark
Assertion (A): Democracy has looked the same in every South Asian country.
Reason (R): Pakistan and Bangladesh went through spells of military rule.