1 Three Challenges for the New Nation
India attained independence at midnight, 14–15 August 1947, with Nehru’s “tryst with destiny” speech to the Constituent Assembly. Independent India faced three broad challenges. This chapter covers only the first:
| Challenge | What it meant |
|---|---|
| 1. Shape a nation | United, yet accommodative of India’s continental diversity of language, culture and religion: the immediate challenge |
| 2. Establish democracy | A democratic Constitution is necessary but not sufficient: democratic practice had to be developed (covered in the next chapter) |
| 3. Ensure development for all | Not just some sections: guided by the Directive Principles of State Policy (covered later in the book) |
2 Partition: The Process
The “two-nation theory”, advanced by the Muslim League, held that India comprised not one but two peoples, Hindus and Muslims, and demanded a separate country, Pakistan. The Congress opposed this, but 1940s political developments led to Partition anyway, following the principle of religious majorities.
No single Muslim belt
Muslim-majority areas existed in two separate zones, so Pakistan became West and East Pakistan, separated by Indian territory.
Not all wanted Pakistan
Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (“Frontier Gandhi”) opposed the two-nation theory, but the NWFP was merged into Pakistan regardless.
Punjab and Bengal
Both had large non-Muslim populations, so they were bifurcated at district level: the deepest trauma of Partition.
Minorities on both sides
Large Hindu/Sikh populations in Pakistan and Muslim populations in Indian Punjab/Bengal found themselves trapped.
3 Consequences of Partition
About 80 lakh people were forced to migrate across the new border; between 5 and 10 lakh people were killed in Partition-related violence. Survivors themselves described Partition as a “division of hearts.”
Cities like Lahore, Amritsar and Kolkata split into “communal zones.” Thousands of women were abducted and forced to convert or marry; some were killed by their own families to preserve “family honour.” Even after mass migration, Muslims still made up 10–12% of India’s population in 1951: raising the question of how India would treat its religious minorities. National leaders rejected the two-nation theory despite Partition, choosing instead the ideal of a secular nation, enshrined in the Constitution: all citizens equal regardless of religion.
4 Mahatma Gandhi’s Role
5 Integration of the Princely States
British India consisted of British Indian Provinces (direct British rule) and Princely States (internal autonomy under British “paramountcy”). Princely states covered one-third of British India’s land area, and 1 in 4 Indians lived under princely rule.
The problem: on independence, British paramountcy would lapse, legally freeing all 565 princely states to join India, join Pakistan, or stay independent. A choice left to rulers, not the people. Travancore and Hyderabad’s Nizam announced independence; the Nawab of Bhopal resisted joining the Constituent Assembly.
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Deputy PM and Home Minister, negotiated firmly but diplomatically with princely rulers. Most rulers signed an “Instrument of Accession.” The hardest cases were Junagadh (resolved by plebiscite), Hyderabad, Kashmir (a separate chapter) and Manipur.
| State | What happened |
|---|---|
| Hyderabad | Nizam (one of the world’s richest men) wanted independence; signed a Standstill Agreement, Nov 1947. A popular movement rose against his rule (Telangana peasantry worst-hit); his paramilitary Razakars committed atrocities. Indian army moved in September 1948; the Nizam surrendered, and Hyderabad acceded. |
| Manipur | Maharaja Bodhachandra Singh signed the Instrument of Accession before independence, promised internal autonomy. Held elections in June 1948: Manipur was the first part of India to hold an election on universal adult franchise. A Merger Agreement was signed in September 1949 after internal disagreement. |
6 Reorganisation of States on Linguistic Lines
Colonial-era state boundaries followed administrative convenience, not language or culture. The national movement had rejected this: the Indian National Congress itself recognised the linguistic principle for its own internal reorganisation after its 1920 Nagpur session. After independence, leaders postponed linguistic reorganisation, fearing it might cause disintegration or distract from other pressing challenges.
The Vishalandhra movement demanded a separate Telugu-speaking Andhra state out of Madras province. Potti Sriramulu, a Congress/Gandhian leader, died after a 56-day fast (19 October – 15 December 1952) demanding this: causing unrest and violence. The Prime Minister announced a separate Andhra state in December 1952.
This spurred similar demands elsewhere, forcing the government to appoint the States Reorganisation Commission in 1953. It accepted that state boundaries should reflect language boundaries, leading to the States Reorganisation Act, 1956: creating 14 states and 6 union territories. At the time, many feared linguistic states might foster separatism, but leadership, under popular pressure, chose linguistic states as the more democratic path, believing that accommodating regional/linguistic claims would actually reduce the threat of division rather than increase it.
- India’s three challenges: unity (this chapter), democracy, development for all
- Partition followed the two-nation theory and the principle of religious majorities; Punjab and Bengal were bifurcated
- ~80 lakh people displaced, 5–10 lakh killed; India chose secularism despite Partition
- Gandhi assassinated 30 January 1948 by Nathuram Godse, after fasts in Kolkata and Delhi
- 565 princely states: Patel negotiated the Instrument of Accession; Hyderabad needed army action (1948), Manipur held India’s first universal-franchise election (June 1948)
- Vishalandhra movement + Potti Sriramulu’s fast (1952) → separate Andhra → States Reorganisation Commission (1953) → States Reorganisation Act, 1956 → 14 states, 6 union territories
- 1 MarkOn what date did India attain independence?
- 1 MarkWhat was the “two-nation theory”?
- 1 MarkHow many princely states were there at the time of independence?
- 1 MarkWho led the integration of the princely states, and what post did he hold?
- 1 MarkOn what date was Mahatma Gandhi assassinated, and by whom?
- 1 MarkWhich state was the first in India to hold an election on universal adult franchise?
- 1 MarkIn which year was the States Reorganisation Act passed?
- 1 MarkWho undertook a fast demanding a separate Andhra state, and what was the outcome?
- 2 MarksWhat were the three broad challenges faced by independent India?
- 2 MarksWhat was the “Instrument of Accession”?
- 2 MarksWhy were Punjab and Bengal bifurcated at the district level?
- 4 MarksDescribe the circumstances of Hyderabad’s accession to India.
- 4 MarksWhat was the States Reorganisation Commission, and what was its most important recommendation?
- 4 MarksWhy did India’s leaders initially postpone the linguistic reorganisation of states?
- 4 MarksExplain any two consequences of the Partition of India.
- 6 MarksDiscuss the challenges faced in integrating the princely states into the Indian Union, with reference to Hyderabad and Manipur.
- 6 MarksDescribe the process and consequences of the Partition of India.
- 6 MarksTrace the events that led to the States Reorganisation Act of 1956.
- 1 MarkSardar Patel held which position at the time of the integration of princely states?
(a) Prime Minister(b) Deputy PM and Home Minister(c) Defence Minister(d) Governor-General - 1 MarkHyderabad’s ruler carried the title:
(a) Nawab(b) Maharaja(c) Nizam(d) Diwan - 1 MarkThe States Reorganisation Act, 1956, created how many states?
(a) 9(b) 14(c) 22(d) 28 - 1 MarkPotti Sriramulu’s fast demanded a separate state of:
(a) Telangana(b) Andhra(c) Karnataka(d) Kerala - 1 MarkManipur signed its Merger Agreement with India in:
(a) 1947(b) 1948(c) 1949(d) 1956
Options: (a) Both true, R correctly explains A · (b) Both true, R does not explain A · (c) A true, R false · (d) A false, R true.
- 1 Mark
Assertion (A): India became a Hindu nation after Partition.
Reason (R): National leaders rejected the two-nation theory and chose the ideal of a secular nation. - 1 Mark
Assertion (A): Linguistic states were formed only because national leaders wanted them from the start.
Reason (R): Leaders initially postponed linguistic reorganisation, fearing it might cause disintegration.