Contents
hide
The essence of this chapter for last-minute revision: mineral classification, India’s three mineral belts, key ferrous/non-ferrous/non-metallic minerals, conventional and non-conventional energy sources, and conservation. The full notes, with the complete explanation, are available separately.
1 Three definitions to learn by heart
Learn by heartDefinition 1
A mineral is a natural substance of organic or inorganic origin with definite chemical and physical properties. Minerals are grouped into metallic (ferrous/non-ferrous) and non-metallic (organic/inorganic).
Learn by heartDefinition 2
Bauxite is the ore used in manufacturing aluminium; found in tertiary deposits associated with laterite rocks.
Learn by heartDefinition 3
Conventional energy = coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear energy minerals (exhaustible). Non-conventional energy = the renewable, sustainable sources: solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, bio-energy (more equitably distributed, eco-friendly).
Three characteristics of every mineral
(1) Unevenly distributed over space · (2) Inverse relationship between quality and quantity · (3) Exhaustible: take geological ages to form, no “second crop”.
2 India’s three mineral belts, in one table
| Belt | States | Key minerals |
|---|---|---|
| North-Eastern Plateau | Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand), Odisha Plateau, West Bengal, parts of Chhattisgarh | Iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite, mica: most varied mineral deposits |
| South-Western Plateau | Karnataka, Goa, Tamil Nadu uplands, Kerala | Ferrous metals, bauxite, high-grade iron ore, manganese, limestone; no coal except Neyveli lignite |
| North-Western | Along the Aravalis: Rajasthan + part of Gujarat | Copper, zinc (Dharwar rocks); Rajasthan: sandstone/granite/marble/gypsum; Gujarat: petroleum; both: salt |
Exam tip
Most major mineral resources lie east of a line joining Mangaluru and Kanpur. A fourth, smaller Himalayan belt carries copper, lead, zinc, cobalt and tungsten on both sides.
3 Ferrous minerals: iron ore and manganese
| Mineral | Key facts |
|---|---|
| Iron ore | Types: haematite and magnetite · India = largest reserve in Asia · ~95% of reserves in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu |
| Manganese | Associated with Dharwar rocks · leading producers: Madhya Pradesh and Odisha |
- Odisha iron ore: Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj, Jhar · mines Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, Badampahar, Kiruburu, Bonai
- Jharkhand: Noamundi, Gua (Singhbhum) · Chhattisgarh: Dalli, Rajhara (Durg), Bailadila · Karnataka: Sandur-Hospet, Baba Budan hills, Kudremukh
- Manganese: Odisha (Bonai/Kendujhar/Sundergarh/Gangpur/Koraput/Kalahandi/Bolangir); MP (Balaghat-Chhindwara-Nimar-Mandla-Jhabua belt)
4 Non-ferrous minerals: bauxite and copper
| Mineral | Key facts |
|---|---|
| Bauxite | Ore of aluminium · laterite/tertiary deposits · largest producer: Odisha (Kalahandi, Sambalpur) · also Jharkhand, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, MP, Maharashtra |
| Copper | Alloyable, malleable, ductile · main deposits: Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Balaghat (MP), Jhunjhunu & Alwar (Rajasthan) |
5 Mica: India’s leading non-metallic mineral
| State | Belt |
|---|---|
| Jharkhand | High quality: ~150 km × 22 km, lower Hazaribagh plateau |
| Andhra Pradesh | Nellore: best quality |
| Rajasthan | ~320 km, Jaipur to Bhilwara and around Udaipur |
| Others | Telangana, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, MP, Karnataka, Alleppey (Kerala), Ratnagiri (Maharashtra) |
6 Conventional energy: coal, petroleum, natural gas
| Source | Key facts |
|---|---|
| Coal | Two ages: Gondwana & tertiary · ~80% bituminous, non-coking · Jharia = largest coalfield, then Raniganj (Damodar Valley/Jharkhand-Bengal belt) |
| Petroleum | “Liquid gold” · sedimentary rocks, tertiary period · ONGC set up 1956; before that only Digboi (Assam) · Mumbai High: 160 km offshore, discovered 1973, production 1976 |
| Natural gas | Found with petroleum · CNG (transport), PNG (cooking) · major reserves: Mumbai High, Cambay basin, Krishna-Godavari basin |
- Coal mining centres: Singrauli, Korba, Talcher-Rampur, Chanda-Wardha, Singareni, Pandur
- Tertiary coal: Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland; lignite: coastal Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Gujarat, J&K
- Oilfields: Assam (Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran) · Gujarat (Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba, Lunej)
- Refineries: field-based (Digboi) vs market-based (Barauni)
7 Non-conventional energy sources
| Source | Key facts |
|---|---|
| Nuclear | Minerals: uranium (Dharwar rocks/Singhbhum belt/Rajasthan/Chhattisgarh/Maharashtra/HP), thorium (monazite/ilmenite, Kerala & Tamil Nadu beach sands; richest monazite: Palakkad & Kollam) |
| Solar | Photovoltaics & solar thermal · 7% more effective than coal/oil, 10% more than nuclear · best potential: Gujarat, Rajasthan |
| Wind | Pollution-free, inexhaustible · favourable: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka |
| Tidal/wave | Great potential on west coast; wave energy not yet utilised |
| Geothermal | India’s plant: Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) · first successful tap: 1890, Boise, Idaho (USA) |
| Bio-energy | From agricultural/municipal/industrial waste · example: Okhla, Delhi |
Nuclear timeline
1948 Atomic Energy Commission established · 1954 Atomic Energy Institute, Trombay · 1967 renamed Bhabha Atomic Research Centre. Power projects: Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rawatbhata (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (UP), Kaiga (Karnataka), Kakarapara (Gujarat).
8 Conservation of mineral resources
- Sustainable development = balancing economic growth with environmental concerns
- Develop inexhaustible alternatives (solar, wind, wave, geothermal) to replace exhaustible ones
- Recycle scrap metals, especially copper, lead, zinc (India’s reserves are meagre)
- Use substitutes for scarce metals; reduce export of strategic and scarce minerals
9 Recent developments (boxes printed in this chapter)
- Iron ore industry: Brazil and China are named as world leaders in iron ore production and consumption; India ranks 6th in the world in iron ore deposits. Key public-sector players named: NMDC and KIOCL. Mining is guided by the National Mineral Policy, 1993 and the amended Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act.
- India’s solar growth: India crossed 70,000 MW of solar installed capacity in September 2023, one of only 5 countries to do so. Projected solar capacity: 1500 GW by 2050, and studies even project 5600 GW by 2070, to meet India’s Net Zero target.
- Solar vs the world (Ember report): India (with the EU) contributed 12% of the global rise in solar generation in H1 2023; India’s own solar generation grew 26%, ahead of the 16% global average.
- ONGC, Krishna-Godavari basin: a new deep-water block began production, expected to raise ONGC’s total oil and gas output by 11% and 15% respectively; peak output projected at ~45,000 barrels of oil/day and over 10 MMSCMD of gas.
10 Map work (CBSE 2026-27): 19 places to locate and label
| Type | Place | State |
|---|---|---|
| Iron ore mine | Mayurbhanj | Odisha |
| Iron ore mine | Bailadila | Chhattisgarh |
| Iron ore mine | Ratnagiri | Maharashtra |
| Iron ore mine | Ballari (Bellary) | Karnataka |
| Manganese mine | Balaghat | Madhya Pradesh |
| Manganese mine | Shivamogga (Shimoga) | Karnataka |
| Copper mine | Hazaribagh | Jharkhand |
| Copper mine | Singhbhum | Jharkhand |
| Copper mine | Khetri (Khetari) | Rajasthan |
| Bauxite mine | Katni | Madhya Pradesh |
| Bauxite mine | Bilaspur | Chhattisgarh |
| Bauxite mine | Koraput | Odisha |
| Coal mine | Jharia | Jharkhand |
| Coal mine | Bokaro | Jharkhand |
| Coal mine | Raniganj | West Bengal |
| Coal mine (lignite) | Neyveli | Tamil Nadu |
| Oil refinery | Mathura | Uttar Pradesh |
| Oil refinery | Jamnagar | Gujarat |
| Oil refinery | Barauni | Bihar |
Final revision: numbers only
- Iron ore ~95% reserves in 8 named states · coal >97% in 4 river valleys · ~80% coal bituminous non-coking
- Jharkhand mica belt 150 km × 22 km · Rajasthan mica belt 320 km
- ONGC 1956 · Mumbai High: 160 km offshore, discovered 1973, production 1976
- Atomic Energy Commission 1948 · Trombay Institute 1954 · renamed BARC 1967
- Solar: 7% more effective than coal/oil, 10% more than nuclear
- Geothermal first tap: 1890, Boise, Idaho · plant commissioned at Manikaran, HP
- Largest coalfield: Jharia, then Raniganj · largest bauxite producer: Odisha
- Two refinery types: field-based (Digboi), market-based (Barauni)
More for this chapter