Exam-useful questions from this chapter, grouped by marks, each with a full model answer. Try writing the answer yourself first, then check it against this one.
1 1-Mark Questions
Q. Define individual differences.
Answer: Individual differences refer to the distinctiveness and variations among people’s characteristics and behaviour patterns.
Q. What is situationism?
Answer: Situationism is the view that behaviour is influenced more by situational and circumstantial factors than by a person’s stable personal traits.
Q. Define aptitude.
Answer: Aptitude is an individual’s underlying potential for acquiring specific knowledge or skills after training.
Q. What is the g-factor in Spearman’s theory?
Answer: The g-factor is the general factor of intelligence: mental operations that are primary and common to all types of performance.
Q. State William Stern’s formula for IQ.
Answer: IQ = (Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age) × 100.
Q. What is Mental Age (MA)?
Answer: Mental Age is a measure of a person’s intellectual development relative to people of their own age group.
Q. Name any two of Gardner’s eight multiple intelligences.
Answer: Any two of: Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, Spatial, Musical, Bodily-Kinaesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalistic.
Q. What is EQ?
Answer: EQ (Emotional Quotient) is used to express the amount of emotional intelligence a person has, the way IQ expresses intelligence.
2 2-Mark Questions
Q. Distinguish between formal and informal assessment.
Answer: Formal assessment is objective, standardised and organised, carried out by trained psychologists. Informal assessment varies from case to case and assessor to assessor, and is open to subjective interpretation.
Q. Distinguish between aptitude and interest.
Answer: Interest is a preference for engaging in a particular activity, while aptitude is the potentiality (underlying potential) to perform that activity. A person may have interest without aptitude, or aptitude without interest: success needs both.
Q. What are the three sub-components of Sternberg’s componential intelligence?
Answer: (1) The knowledge-acquisition component, responsible for learning; (2) the meta/higher-order component, responsible for planning what and how to do; (3) the performance component, responsible for actually carrying out the task.
Q. Differentiate between simultaneous and successive processing in the PASS model.
Answer: Simultaneous processing integrates information into a meaningful, interrelated whole all at once (e.g. Raven’s Progressive Matrices). Successive processing recalls information serially, one item after another, so recalling one leads to recalling the next (e.g. learning digits, alphabets, multiplication tables).
Q. What three features does the AAMD’s definition of intellectual disability identify?
Answer: (1) Significantly sub-average intellectual functioning (IQ below 70); (2) deficits in adaptive behaviour, the capacity to be independent and deal effectively with one’s environment; (3) onset during the developmental period, between 0 and 18 years of age.
Q. What is the difference between giftedness and talent?
Answer: Giftedness is exceptional general ability shown in superior performance across a wide variety of areas, while talent is a narrower term referring to remarkable ability in one specific field, such as spiritual, social or aesthetic activity.
Q. What is culture-fair testing, and why is it difficult to achieve?
Answer: A culture-fair test does not discriminate against individuals from different cultures: its items assess experiences common to all cultures, or need no language. It is difficult because it is nearly impossible to design a test that applies equally meaningfully to people from every culture; many intelligence tests show a bias to the culture in which they were developed.
Q. How does Vygotsky explain the role of culture in intellectual development?
Answer: Vygotsky argued that culture provides the social context in which people live, grow and understand the world. Elementary mental functions (crying, walking, attending to a mother’s voice) are universal, but higher mental functions like problem solving and thinking are largely produced by culture.
3 4-Mark Questions
Q. Explain Spearman’s two-factor theory of intelligence.
Answer: In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed the two-factor theory using the statistical method of factor analysis. He showed that intelligence consists of a general factor (g-factor): mental operations that are primary and common to all kinds of performance: plus a number of specific factors (s-factors), which are abilities specific to particular tasks or domains. According to Spearman, excellent singers, architects, scientists and athletes may all be high on the g-factor, but each also carries specific s-factor abilities that let them excel in their own particular field.
Q. Describe Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence.
Answer: Sternberg (1985) defined intelligence as the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish one’s own goals and those of one’s society and culture. He proposed three basic types of intelligence. Componential (analytical) intelligence is the analysis of information to solve problems, with three sub-parts: knowledge-acquisition, the meta/planning component, and the performance component. Experiential (creative) intelligence uses past experience creatively to solve new problems and is reflected in creative performance. Contextual (practical) intelligence deals with everyday environmental demands: ‘street smartness’: through adapting to, selecting, or shaping one’s environment to succeed.
Q. Explain the PASS model of intelligence.
Answer: The PASS model, developed by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri and Kirby (1994), says that intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of three neurological functional units of the brain. The Arousal/Attention unit brings the person to an optimal state of alertness so they can attend to the relevant aspects of a task. The Simultaneous-Successive Processing unit integrates information either as an interrelated whole (simultaneous, e.g. Raven’s Progressive Matrices) or serially, one item after another (successive, e.g. remembering digits or the alphabet). The Planning unit lets a person think of possible courses of action, implement a chosen plan, evaluate its effectiveness, and modify it if it does not work. These three processes act on a knowledge base built formally or informally, and Das and Naglieri also developed a battery of tests, the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS), for ages 5-18.
Q. Discuss the role of heredity and environment in the development of intelligence, using the evidence given in the chapter.
Answer: Evidence for heredity’s role comes from twin and adoption studies: identical twins reared together correlate almost 0.90 in intelligence, identical twins reared in different environments correlate 0.72, fraternal twins reared together correlate about 0.60, siblings reared together about 0.50, and siblings reared apart about 0.25: the closer the genetic relationship, the higher the correlation, even across different environments. Evidence for environment’s role comes from adopted children: their intelligence is more similar to their biological than adoptive parents at first, but as they grow older their IQ moves closer to their adoptive parents; children from disadvantaged homes adopted into higher socio-economic families show large gains in IQ. The general consensus among psychologists is that intelligence is a product of the complex interaction of heredity, which sets a range for development, and environment, which determines how much of that potential is actually realised through the support and opportunities available.
Q. Explain how psychologists classify people on the basis of their IQ scores, using Table 1.1.
Answer: IQ scores in a population are distributed as a symmetrical, bell-shaped normal curve around a mean of 100. Table 1.1 classifies people into seven bands: Above 130 is Very superior (2.2% of the population), 120-130 is Superior (6.7%), 110-119 is High average (16.1%), 90-109 is Average (50.0%, the largest single band), 80-89 is Low average (16.1%), 70-79 is Borderline (6.7%), and below 70 is Intellectually disabled (2.2%). People with IQ 90-110 are said to have normal intelligence, while the two extreme groups: about 2% each: are termed intellectually gifted and intellectually disabled respectively, and these two groups differ considerably from the normal population in cognitive, emotional and motivational characteristics.
Q. Discuss the characteristics of a gifted child, as given in the chapter.
Answer: Gifted children show early signs of intellectual superiority, even in infancy and early childhood: a larger attention span, good recognition memory, preference for novelty, sensitivity to environmental change, and early appearance of language skills. The chapter lists several characteristics: advanced logical thinking, questioning and problem-solving behaviour; high speed of information processing; superior generalisation and discrimination ability; an advanced level of original and creative thinking; a high level of intrinsic motivation and self-esteem; and independent, non-conformist thinking, often with a preference for solitary academic activity for long periods. Giftedness must not be equated with brilliant academic performance alone: athletes with superior psychomotor ability are gifted too: and identification can combine test performance with teachers’ judgment, school records, parent interviews, and peer and self-ratings.
Q. Explain the concept of ‘integral intelligence’ in the Indian tradition, as described in the chapter.
Answer: Contrary to the Western idea of ‘technological intelligence’ (based on analysis, speed, performance and achievement orientation), the Indian tradition views intelligence holistically, as ‘integral intelligence’, emphasising a person’s connectivity with the social and wider world environment, and giving equal weight to cognitive and non-cognitive processes and their integration. The Sanskrit word ‘buddhi’, used for intelligence, is far more pervasive than the Western concept: according to J.P. Das, it includes mental effort, determined action, feelings and opinions along with cognitive competence (knowledge, discrimination, understanding), as well as self-knowledge based on conscience, will and desire. The Indian tradition identifies four facets of intelligence: cognitive competence, social competence (respect for social order, commitment to elders/young/needy), emotional competence (self-regulation, honesty, good conduct), and entrepreneurial competence (commitment, persistence, hard work, goal-directed behaviour).
4 6-Mark Questions
Q. Explain, with examples, the eight types of intelligence identified by Howard Gardner in his Theory of Multiple Intelligences.
Answer: Howard Gardner proposed that intelligence is not a single entity but consists of several distinct, independent intelligences, which nonetheless interact and work together to solve problems; being high in one does not mean being high or low in another. The eight types are: (1) Linguistic: the ability to use language fluently and flexibly, seen in poets and writers; (2) Logical-Mathematical: logical/critical thinking and abstract reasoning, seen in scientists and Nobel laureates; (3) Spatial: forming and transforming visual images, seen in pilots, sculptors, painters, architects and surgeons; (4) Musical: producing and manipulating musical rhythms and patterns; (5) Bodily-Kinaesthetic: using the whole body or its parts flexibly and creatively, seen in athletes, dancers and surgeons; (6) Interpersonal: understanding others’ motives, feelings and behaviours, seen in counsellors, politicians and social workers; (7) Intrapersonal: understanding one’s own feelings, motives and desires, seen in philosophers and spiritual leaders; (8) Naturalistic: identifying features of the natural world, seen in farmers, botanists and bird watchers. Gardner arrived at this list by studying extremely talented people who showed exceptional ability in their own particular areas.
Q. Discuss the different theories representing the psychometric approach to intelligence.
Answer: The psychometric approach treats intelligence as an aggregate of abilities expressed as a single index of cognitive ability. Binet’s uni-factor (one-factor) theory held that intelligence is one set of abilities usable for any problem, but this was disputed once data from his own test were analysed. Spearman’s two-factor theory (1927) used factor analysis to show a general g-factor common to all performance, plus specific s-factors. Thurstone’s theory of Primary Mental Abilities proposed seven relatively independent abilities: Verbal Comprehension, Numerical Abilities, Spatial Relations, Perceptual Speed, Word Fluency, Memory, and Inductive Reasoning. Jensen’s hierarchical model distinguished Level I (associative learning, e.g. rote memory) from Level II (cognitive competence, higher-order transformation of input into effective output). Guilford’s Structure-of-Intellect model classified intellectual traits along three dimensions: Operations, Contents and Products: giving 180 cells (6×5×6), each expected to hold at least one factor of ability.
Q. “Any intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of three neurological systems.” Explain this statement with reference to the PASS model.
Answer: This statement refers to the PASS (Planning, Attention-arousal, Simultaneous-successive) model of J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri and Kirby (1994), which holds that intellectual activity comes from the interdependent, though individually distinctive, functioning of three neurological functional units of the brain. The Arousal/Attention unit is basic to all behaviour: an optimal level of arousal focuses attention on the relevant aspects of a problem, while too much or too little arousal interferes with attention. The Simultaneous-Successive Processing unit integrates information either simultaneously (as an interrelated, meaningful whole, e.g. Raven’s Progressive Matrices) or successively (in serial order, so that recalling one item leads to the next, e.g. digits, the alphabet, multiplication tables). The Planning unit becomes active once information has been attended to and processed: it lets a person think of possible courses of action, implement a chosen plan to reach a target, evaluate the plan’s effectiveness, and modify it if it fails. These three processes are interactive and dynamic, each with its own distinctive function, and together they operate on a knowledge base built both formally (reading, writing, experimenting) and informally, from the environment: which is exactly why the chapter calls their functioning ‘interdependent.’
Q. How is creativity related to intelligence? Discuss with reference to the chapter’s own example of Sunita and Rita, and Terman’s research.
Answer: The chapter illustrates the relationship using two students: Sunita completes work on time, tops her class, grasps instructions quickly and reproduces material accurately, but rarely produces an idea of her own: she is called more intelligent. Rita is only an average student who prefers to learn her own way, improvises new methods to help at home and complete her assignments: she is called more creative. Someone who learns fast and reproduces accurately is thus considered more intelligent than creative, unless they also devise new ways of learning and doing. Terman, in the 1920s, found that persons with high IQ were not necessarily creative, and that creative ideas could come from people who did not have a very high IQ. Other researches have shown that not even one of those identified as gifted, followed up throughout their adult life, had become well known for creativity in any field. Researchers also found both high and low creativity among highly intelligent children as well as children of average intelligence. Researchers nonetheless found the relationship between creativity and intelligence to be positive: all creative acts require a minimum level of ability to acquire knowledge and to comprehend, retain and retrieve it: a creative writer needs facility with language, a scientist needs the ability to reason. The chapter’s own conclusion is that a certain level of intelligence is required for creativity, but beyond that minimum level, intelligence does not correlate well with creativity: so an intelligent person need not necessarily be creative, though a certain baseline of intelligence is a precondition for creative work.
5 Case Studies
(A) 1 mark Which one of Sternberg’s three types of intelligence is Rohit’s puzzle-solving ability closest to?
Answer: Componential (analytical) intelligence: the analysis of information to solve problems, with a single correct solution found quickly.
(B) 2 marks Explain, using the chapter’s own distinction between convergent and divergent thinking, why Meera’s game-design ability is not well captured by a standard intelligence test.
Answer: Standard intelligence tests mainly use convergent thinking, where there is one correct answer to find; Meera’s task instead calls for divergent thinking: producing several different, original ideas from the same starting materials: which is exactly what creativity tests assess and standard intelligence tests do not.
(C) 3 marks Using the book’s own conclusion about the relationship between intelligence and creativity, explain whether Rohit’s superior puzzle-solving intelligence means he must also be more creative than Meera.
Answer: No. The chapter’s own conclusion is that a certain level of intelligence is necessary for creativity, but beyond that minimum, intelligence does not correlate well with creativity: a person can be more intelligent (in the conventional, analytical sense) without necessarily being more creative. Terman found that persons with high IQ were not necessarily creative, and researchers have also found that both high and low creativity occur among both highly intelligent children and children of average intelligence. So Rohit’s stronger performance on convergent, puzzle-type tasks does not establish that he is more creative than Meera; Meera’s divergent, original thinking is itself a sign of creativity.